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The many music cultures of Africa may be
broadly classified as North African and sub-Saharan. This
article discusses only traditional music of the dominant population
south of the Sahara, as North African culture is essentially
Islamic or Arabic. The diversity of this population is reflected
both in the number of languages spoken--about 800 to 1,000--and
in the wide variety of music traditions cultivated. Fortunately,
these traditions have many traits in common, permitting a
discussion of them in general terms.
MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS
Africa probably has the largest variety of drums to be found
in any continent, but virtually every other type of musical
instrument is also represented throughout Africa.
Some distinctively African instruments, however, are unique
to the continent. Of the drums, the most
characteristically African are those known as "talking
drums" because they can reproduce the tonal inflections
and rhythms of African languages. Their musical potential
is also fully realized. The western African hourglass drum
is the most versatile talking drum. Squeezing the lacing between
the two heads produces PITCH that can vary more than an octave.
Another is the slit drum, made from a hollowed log on which
two tones are produced by striking on either side of a longitudinal
slot.
Of the myriad types of rattle, the western African net rattle,
made of a handle gourd encased in a beaded net, is unique.
The Yoruba shekere of Nigeria has a tight net, and the loose
net on the Mende shegbule of Sierra Leone is held taut by
the player. Because of the external beads, precise rhythms
can be played on both these versions of the net rattle.
XYLOPHONEs, widespread in Africa, are of two basic types.
The frame xylophone, such as those played by the MANDE and
Lobi of West Africa, the FANG of Cameroon, and the Chopi of
Mozambique, has gourd resonators hung beneath each key. The
loose-key xylophone, such as the Ganda amadinda of Uganda,
is left unassembled when not in use; when played, the keys
are laid across two banana stems.
As widespread as the xylophone, and unique to African and
African-derived cultures, is the mbira, which consists of
flat iron strips mounted on a board or box with one end of
each strip left free to be plucked by the thumbs or thumbs
and forefingers.
The simplest of the many stringed instruments found throughout
Africa is the musical BOW, resonated with a gourd or with
the mouth of the player. ZITHERs and HARPs are common in eastern
and central Africa, and the LYRE, which has a hemispherical
or rectangular body and two arms extending to a crossbar where
the strings are attached, is played in Ethiopia and Uganda.
In western Africa the most common stringed instrument is the
skin-covered LUTE, either boat-shaped with two to five plucked
strings or hemispherical with one bowed string.
Three stringed instruments unique to Africa are the bridge
harp (or harp lute), the harp zither, and the bow lute. The
best-known form of the bridge harp is the 21-string Manding
kora of western Africa. It is held facing the player, who
plucks two planes of strings mounted in notches on either
side of a high bridge. The harp zither, best known as the
Fang mvet of Cameroon, also has a notched bridge that is mounted
in the center of its long tubular body. The bow lute, such
as the Bambara ndang, is plucked and has an individual curved
neck for each string.
The FLUTEs of Africa are of every type except the RECORDER.
In eastern, central, and southern Africa, groups of musicians
play sets of single-note vertical pipes, each person contributing
a single note to create a complex polyphonic texture. Panpipes
are also played in this area. Of the various reed instruments
of Africa, the most notable is the Hausa algaita of Nigeria,
a short conical-bore double reed. African TRUMPETs include
the kakaki, a straight herald trumpet of tin associated with
Hausa aristocracy, but the most typical African trumpets are
made of natural animal horns, ivory, or hollowed wood and
are played in sets in the same manner as the single-note vertical
pipes.
MUSICIANS
Music is closely integrated into everyday activities in Africa.
Vocal music, instrumental music, and dance are often inseparable,
and the emphasis is on participation rather than on performance
before an audience. Even in traditions where professionalism
or virtuosity does result in a distinction between performer
and audience, the audience often dances to show its appreciation.
The role and status of a musician in Africa vary widely and
are determined in part by the social and political structure
of the community. In egalitarian societies that are organized
into small political units and that are composed of individuals
generally involved in the same activities such as hunting,
herding, or farming, a musician has no special status. Still,
particularly talented instrumentalists or persons who are
adept at leading vocal ensembles will become known for their
abilities and will be called upon to perform at all musical
occasions.
In those societies in which a high degree of political organization
exists, in which royal courts once flourished, and in which
craft specialization has developed, the role of the musician
is more clearly defined and distinct. For example, in the
West African savanna, complex hierarchical societies grew
hand in hand with the great empires of the 10th to 20th centuries,
and musicianship and such related skills as oratory, historical
narrative, genealogy, and stylized praise developed into a
hereditary profession.
Today, descendants of these empires still largely regard music
and related activities as the exclusive province of particular
families. Although present-day musicians (known as griots)
in these societies no longer perform at the courts of kings,
they still direct much of their attention to the wealthy and
influential, encouraging historical awareness through their
commemorative songs. Their role is important, and their status
is similar to that of professional experts anywhere. These
musicians are highly respected for their knowledge and abilities
and are valued for their role in ceremonies and festivities.
At the same time, they are regarded with a degree of caution,
because of the potential power of their words and actions.
The privileges afforded members of the profession often include
the right to criticize or make moral judgments.
FUNCTION AND PERFORMANCE
As in all parts of the world today, the live performance of
music in Africa is threatened by the ever-increasing popularity
of transistor radios, cassette tape recorders, and other sources
of recorded sound. Still, the participatory nature of most
African music and its close association with dance assure
the continuance of live performances for many occasions.
The music for these occasions may be broadly classified as
either daily or festive. Daily music includes all types of
children's songs and game music, lullabies, songs to accompany
tedious chores or to synchronize work, songs for personal
enjoyment, and many types of music designed primarily for
mass entertainment, such as social dances or dramatic performances
staged by traveling troupes. Festive music is closely linked
to special events in the human life cycle, such as births,
initiations, weddings, and funerals, and to special national,
religious, and agricultural events. The elaborate and spectacular
masked dances for which Africa is famous are usually associated
with such festivities.
In some societies another category of festive music is associated
with particular individuals rather than with events. The festivity
is generated by the mere presence of the musician, usually
a professional, who sings songs of commemoration and praise
for a given patron. These praise songs serve to verify the
claim to greatness of various leaders and heroes, both past
and present. In the hierarchical societies this genre of song
is still important as it serves to establish and maintain
the necessary rapport between leaders and populace.
Allied to the praise song are the historical song and its
extension, the epic narrative. Both are common in various
parts of Africa, and in both a story is told with musical
accompaniment. Songs are incorporated at appropriate points
in the story to depict particular scenes. A more popular version
of this type is the story-song, in which the content is not
necessarily true but often incorporates a well-known FABLE
or other entertaining story. The story-song is a vehicle for
moral teaching and entertainment.
Whether daily or festive, almost all African music plays a
strong socializing role. Annoyances and jealousies are often
vented in extemporized, obliquely stated song texts, which,
if sung within hearing of the offender, can achieve the desired
effect. Work-synchronizing songs promote efficiency and together
with those calendrical events in which everyone takes part,
contribute to a feeling of group solidarity. Music and instruments
associated with royalty or leadership command respect. In
the past, some societies even regarded royal instruments as
the seat of the king's power; if they were captured by enemies,
it marked the downfall of the kingdom.
STYLISTIC TRAITS
In general, the sound of African music may be characterized
as polyphonic. Vocal-instrumental combinations are as common
as purely instrumental music, and in all types of music a
predilection for the combination of melodic and rhythmic sounds
is apparent.
Nearly all melodic instruments of Africa (including many drums)
have a device that provides a percussive rhythmic accompaniment.
The stylistic trait for which African music is most famous
is rhythmic organization. Although individual parts in some
performances may be extremely complex rhythmically, in most
instances rhythmic complexity is created by the manner in
which the relatively simple rhythms of individual parts are
combined. This combination is often effected in such a way
that the accent patterns of each part run counter to one another,
creating a composite rhythm or melody that no single part
can play alone.
African melodies are built on scales of five, six, and seven
tones, and the intervals used are sufficiently close to Western
scales to sound familiar and appealing. In addition, multipart
music often employs the harmonic intervals of thirds, fourths,
and fifths. The melodic style of instrumental music is based
on a short repeated phrase (ostinato) that is subjected to
minute but continuous VARIATION with occasional breaks for
longer improvised passages. Vocal lines may also be short
but are often extremely long and complex. A descending melodic
line is common, reflecting the tonal nature of many African
languages.
The formal structure of most African music is based on the
ostinato. In some performances several different ostinatos
may be repeated in various sequences at the discretion of
the performer. The ostinato form is used in vocal music as
well, but it is usually modified by the addition of a solo
part inserted between repetitions of the unchanging chorus
part. The potentials for variation of this basic form are
exploited to the fullest throughout the continent. An overriding
stylistic trait of African music is its ability to generate
an engaging mood and active involvement in the performance.
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