|
In common usage the term classical music
denotes "art music", as opposed to popular or folk
music. Music historians, however, use the term to mean a specific
style and period in music history, roughly 1750 to 1825, that
followed the baroque era and preceded the romantic. Its greatest
masters were Christoph Willibald GLUCK, Franz Josef HAYDN,
Wolfgang Amadeus MOZART, and Ludwig van BEETHOVEN. The latter
three composers are often referred to as the "Viennese
classical school."
The classical period saw the emergence and rapid flowering
of the SONATA form and the first maturity of the SYMPHONY,
the solo CONCERTO, the solo piano sonata, the STRING QUARTET,
and other forms of CHAMBER MUSIC. During this time the ORCHESTRA
was expanded, in both the number and the variety of instruments,
and the PIANO supplanted the HARPSICHORD as the most popular
solo keyboard instrument.
One source for the origins of the classical style may be traced
to about 1720, when in France under Louis XV a new style of
architectural ornamentation became popular that was characterized
by elegant detail and artificial or elaborately sculptured
stone. This style gave rise to the term rococo (from the French
rocaille, meaning "rock-work"). The style was soon
imitated in Italy and Germany. The rococo left its mark on
music in the form of light and delicate textures, profusely
ornamented melodies, and an elegant sentimentality; it is
often referred to as the style galant. Another source of the
classical style is the empfindsamer Stil ("sensitive"
or "sentimental style") that appeared in Germany
about 1740 and is exemplified in the keyboard works of Carl
Philipp Emanuel BACH. This style was emotional, passionate,
even boisterous.
Instrumental Music
Composers of the classical period developed a new type of
melody made up of contrasting melodic fragments, or motives.
These melodic fragments could be combined and manipulated
in various ways, which gave rise to the technique of development,
a crucial element of the emerging classical style. The polarity
between the melody and the bass that was characteristic of
the baroque era was abandoned; inner voices were made melodically
important, and a four-voice texture that was completely written
out became the rule.
The sonata form, the most important musical structure of the
classical period, was used in symphonies, sonatas, concertos,
and chamber works (almost invariably in the first movement,
though sometimes in other movements). This form has three
main sections: exposition, development, and recapitulation.
In the first (exposition), the thematic material is stated
in contrasting harmonies and textures; in the second (development),
material (or a part of it, sometimes with new themes) is modified
in various ways, expanded, combined, fragmented, or dramatically
intensified through modulation to other keys; the third section
(recapitulation) is basically a repetition of the first, but
now with major harmonic changes.
The early symphonies and quartets of Haydn were among the
first works of lasting value to be composed in the classical
style. Haydn was influenced by the works of Giovanni Battista
SAMMARTINI, Carl Phillipp Emanuel Bach, and Johann STAMITZ,
the founder of the MANNHEIM SCHOOL of composers. In Haydn's
last and most mature works, however, the influence of Mozart
is apparent.
An essential characteristic of classical music is a balance
between the content of the music and the form in which it
is expressed. In this respect, Mozart went further than Haydn
in combining depth of expression with formal perfection in
his works. Moreover, Mozart refined and merged the styles
of Italian and German composers, creating an individual style
in which virtually all the major developments of the period
were summarized.
Beethoven, working primarily in instrumental forms, began
composing in the classical style. In his late works he explored
other means of expression. To many, Beethoven's last five
string quartets resist classification as either classic or
romantic. In them, depth of sentiment, an intensified technique
of motivic development, and expressive counterpoint were combined
to produce some of the world's greatest music.
Opera
By the middle of the 18th century, many composers felt a need
to reform opera and bring it into line with changing attitudes
toward music and drama. Such composers as Niccolo JOMMELLI
and Tommaso Traetta (1727-79) worked toward that goal, but
it was Gluck who succeeded when he achieved an international
style that remained influential throughout the classical period.
The goals of operatic reform were to restore the poetry to
its central place, to remove superfluous vocal acrobatics,
and to emphasize the drama. These goals required, in Gluck's
words, a "beautiful simplicity" in the music, which
became characteristic of classical opera, notably in his works
but also in those of Luigi CHERUBINI and Gasparo SPONTINI.
Several forms of lighter opera also reached a peak of development
during the period. Among them was the Italian opera buffa,
which numbered Giovanni PAISIELLO and Niccolo PICCINNI among
its prominent composers. Other forms were the French opera
comique, whose leading composers were Francois Andre Danican-PHILIDOR
and Andre Ernest Modeste GRETRY; the German Singspiel; and
the English ballad opera, of which Thomas ARNE was the principal
composer. It remained for Mozart, however, to bring classical
opera, in most of its forms, to perfection. His melodic gift--a
keen dramatic sense, skillfully wrought ensembles, and impeccable,
formal construction--contributed to the creation of music
that has never been surpassed.
The classical period in music coincided with two important
developments--the emergence and spread of public concerts
and the emancipation of the musician as an artist. From Beethoven
on, they appeared before the public as independent creators
and performers, no longer dependent for recognition on the
favor of rulers or officials.
Homer Ulrich
Bibliography: Blume, Friedrich, Classic and Romantic Music
(1970); Grout, D. J., A History of Western Music, 3d ed. (1980);
Grout, D.J., and Williams, H.W., A Short History of Opera,
3d ed. (1987); Landon, H. C. Robbins, Essays on the Viennese
Classical Style (1970); Raeburn, M., and Kendall, A., eds.,
Heritage of Music: Classical Music and Its Origins, vol. 1
(1988); Rosen, Charles, The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart,
Beethoven (1971); Rushton, J., Classical Music: A Concise
History from Gluck to Beethoven (1986).
Picture Caption[s]
Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827), regarded as one of the greatest
masters of music, is depicted here in a portrait by Karl Josef
Stieler. Although Beethoven began to go deaf about 1800, he
continued to compose and produce superlative music, including
the Ninth Symphony and Missa Solemnis. (The Bettmann Archive)
Music: Symphony No. 5, 1st Movement.
Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809), an Austrian composer of the
classical period, is depicted here in a contemporary engraved
portrait. Haydn composed most of his works while retained
as a court composer at the estate of the Esterhazy family.
His development of the sonata form in his symphonies and string
quartets profoundly influenced Mozart and Beethoven. (The
Bettmann Archive) Music: Symphony No. 101, "The Clock."
Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) is widely regarded as
the greatest composer who ever lived. He began writing minuets
at the age of 5, and by the time of his death at age 35, he
had produced 626 cataloged works. This portrait is from a
painting in the Bologna Conservatory. (The Bettmann Archive)
Music: Eine Kleine Nachtmusic.
Franz Schubert, an early-19th-century Austrian composer, is
celebrated for his lieder--songs for piano and voice. Although
he wrote symphonies, chamber music, and operas, his gift for
melodic expression shows best in his lieder, of which he wrote
634. Schubert was not a concert performer or a conductor,
and therefore he received limited recognition during his lifetime.
(The Bettmann Archive)
 |
 |
|
- 
